MORPHINE Drug Interactions: What You Need to Know

INTERACTIONS Table 1 includes clinically significant drug interactions with morphine sulfate extended-release capsules.

Table

1: Clinically Significant Drug Interactions with Morphine Sulfate Extended-Release Capsules Alcohol Clinical Impact: Concomitant use of alcohol with morphine sulfate extended-release capsules can result in an increase of morphine plasma levels and potentially fatal overdose of morphine. Intervention: Instruct patients not to consume alcoholic beverages or use prescription or non-prescription products containing alcohol while on morphine sulfate extended-release capsules therapy [see Warnings and Precautions (5.3) ]. Benzodiazepines and Other Central Nervous System (CNS)

Depressants Clinical

Impact: Due to additive pharmacologic effect, the concomitant use of benzodiazepines or other CNS depressants, including alcohol, can increase the risk of hypotension, respiratory depression, profound sedation, coma, and death. Intervention: Reserve concomitant prescribing of these drugs for use in patients for whom alternative treatment options are inadequate. Limit dosages and durations to the minimum required. Inform patients and caregivers of this potential interaction, educate them on the signs and symptoms of respiratory depression (including sedation) . If concomitant use is warranted, consider recommending or prescribing an opioid overdose reversal agent [see Dosage and Administration (2.1 , 2.2) , Warnings and Precautions (5.1 , 5.2 , 5.3) ] . Examples: Benzodiazepines and other sedatives/hypnotics, anxiolytics, tranquilizers, muscle relaxants, general anesthetics, antipsychotics, gabapentinoids (gabapentin or pregabalin), other opioids, alcohol.

Serotonergic Drugs Clinical

Impact: The concomitant use of opioids with other drugs that affect the serotonergic neurotransmitter system has resulted in serotonin syndrome. Intervention: If concomitant use is warranted, frequently evaluate the patient, particularly during treatment initiation and dose adjustment. Discontinue morphine sulfate extended-release capsules if serotonin syndrome is suspected. Examples: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), triptans, 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, drugs that effect the serotonin neurotransmitter system (e.g., mirtazapine, trazodone, tramadol), certain muscle relaxants (i.e., cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone), monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors (those intended to treat psychiatric disorders and also others, such as linezolid and intravenous methylene blue).

Monoamine Oxidase

Inhibitors (MAOIs)

Clinical

Impact: MAOI interactions with opioids may manifest as serotonin syndrome or opioid toxicity (e.g., respiratory depression, coma) [see Warnings and Precautions (5.8) ] . Intervention: Do not use morphine sulfate extended-release capsules in patients taking MAOIs or within 14 days of stopping such treatment. Examples: phenelzine, tranylcypromine, linezolid Mixed Agonist/Antagonist and Partial Agonist Opioid Analgesics Clinical Impact: May reduce the analgesic effect of morphine sulfate extended-release capsules and/or precipitate withdrawal symptoms. Intervention: Avoid concomitant use. Examples: butorphanol, nalbuphine, pentazocine, buprenorphine Muscle Relaxants Clinical Impact: Morphine may enhance the neuromuscular blocking action of skeletal muscle relaxants and produce an increased degree of respiratory depression. Intervention: Because respiratory depression may be greater than otherwise expected, decrease the dosage of morphine sulfate extended-release capsules and/or the muscle relaxant as necessary. Due to the risk of respiratory depression with concomitant use of muscle relaxants and opioids, consider recommending or prescribing an opioid overdose reversal agent [see Dosage and Administration (2.2) , Warnings and Precautions (5.2 , 5.3) ] . Examples: cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone Cimetidine Clinical Impact: The concomitant use of cimetidine can potentiate morphine effects and increase risk of hypotension, respiratory depression, profound sedation, coma, and death. Intervention: Evaluate patients for signs of respiratory depression that may be greater than otherwise expected and decrease the dosage of morphine sulfate extended-release capsules and/or cimetidine as necessary.

Diuretics Clinical

Impact: Opioids can reduce the efficacy of diuretics by inducing the release of antidiuretic hormone. Intervention: Evaluate patients for signs of diminished diuresis and/or effects on blood pressure and increase the dosage of the diuretic as needed.

Anticholinergic Drugs Clinical

Impact: The concomitant use of anticholinergic drugs may increase risk of urinary retention and/or severe constipation, which may lead to paralytic ileus. Intervention: Evaluate patients for signs of urinary retention or reduced gastric motility when morphine sulfate extended-release capsules are used concomitantly with anticholinergic drugs. P-Glycoprotein (PGP-Inhibitors)

Clinical

Impact: The concomitant use of PGP-inhibitors can increase the exposure to morphine by about two-fold and can increase risk of hypotension, respiratory depression, profound sedation, coma, and death. Intervention: Evaluate patients for signs of respiratory depression that may be greater than otherwise expected and decrease the dosage of morphine sulfate extended-release capsules and/or the PGP-inhibitor as necessary.

Serotonergic

Drugs: Concomitant use may result in serotonin syndrome. Discontinue morphine sulfate extended-release capsules if serotonin syndrome is suspected. ( 7 )

Monoamine Oxidase

Inhibitors (MAOIs): Can potentiate effects of morphine. Avoid concomitant use in patients taking MAOIs or within 14 days of stopping treatment with an MAOI. ( 7 )

Mixed

Agonist/Antagonist and Partial Agonist Opioid Analgesics: Avoid use with morphine sulfate extended-release capsules because they may reduce analgesic effect of morphine sulfate extended-release capsules or precipitate withdrawal symptoms. ( 5.13 , 7 )

Preservative-free morphine sulfate injection is contraindicated in patients with:

• Significant respiratory depression [see Warnings and Precautions (5.3) ]
• Acute or severe bronchial asthma in an unmonitored setting or in the absence of resuscitative equipment [see Warnings and Precautions (5.9) ]
• Concurrent use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) or use of MAOIs within the last 14 days [see Warnings and Precautions (5.10) , Drug Interactions (7) ]
• Known or suspected gastrointestinal obstruction, including paralytic ileus [see Warnings and Precautions (5.14) ]
• Hypersensitivity to morphine (e.g., anaphylaxis) [see Adverse Reactions (6) ] Neuraxial administration of preservative-free morphine sulfate injection is contraindicated in patients with:
• Infection at the injection microinfusion site [see Warnings and Precautions (5.1) ]
• Concomitant anticoagulant therapy [see Warnings and Precautions (5.1) ]
• Uncontrolled bleeding diathesis [see Warnings and Precautions (5.1) ]
• The presence of any other concomitant therapy or medical condition which would render epidural or intrathecal administration of medication especially hazardous. Preservative-free morphine sulfate injection is contraindicated in patients with:
• Significant respiratory depression ( 4 )
• Acute or severe bronchial asthma in an unmonitored setting in absence of resuscitative equipment ( 4 )
• Concurrent use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) or use of MAOIs within the last 14 days ( 4 )
• Known or suspected gastrointestinal obstruction, including paralytic ileus ( 4 )
• Hypersensitivity or intolerance to morphine ( 4 ) Neuraxial administration of preservative-free morphine sulfate injection is contraindicated in patients with:
• Infection at the injection microinfusion site ( 4 )
• Concomitant anticoagulant therapy ( 4 )
• Uncontrolled bleeding diathesis ( 4 )
• The presence of any other concomitant therapy or medical condition which would render epidural or intrathecal administration of medication especially hazardous. ( 4 )

AND PRECAUTIONS

• Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia and Allodynia: Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia (OIH) occurs when an opioid analgesic paradoxically causes an increase in pain, or an increase in sensitivity to pain. If OIH is suspected, carefully consider appropriately decreasing the dose of the current opioid analgesic or opioid rotation. ( 5.7 )
• Life-Threatening Respiratory Depression in Patients with Chronic Pulmonary Disease or in Elderly, Cachectic, or Debilitated Patients: Regularly evaluate closely, particularly during initiation and titration. ( 5.8 )
• Adrenal Insufficiency: If diagnosed, treat with physiologic replacement of corticosteroids, and wean patient off of the opioid. ( 5.10 )
• Severe Hypotension: Regularly evaluate during dosage initiation and titration. Avoid use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution in patients with circulatory shock. ( 5.11 )
• Risks of Use in Patients with Increased Intracranial Pressure, Brain Tumors, Head Injury, or Impaired Consciousness: Monitor for sedation and respiratory depression. Avoid use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution in patients with impaired consciousness or coma. ( 5.12 )

5.1 Risk of Accidental Overdose and Death due to Medication Errors Dosing errors can result in accidental overdose and death. Avoid dosing errors that may result from confusion between mg and mL and confusion with morphine sulfate oral solutions of different concentrations, when prescribing, dispensing, and administering Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution. Ensure that the dose is communicated clearly and dispensed accurately. Instruct patients and caregivers on how to measure and take or administer the correct dose of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution and to use extreme caution when measuring the dose. Instruct patients and caregivers to always use a graduated oral syringe when administering Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution to ensure the dose is measured and administered accurately. Instruct them to never use a household teaspoon or tablespoon to measure a dose because household teaspoons or tablespoons are not adequate measuring devices.

5.2 Addiction, Abuse, and Misuse Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution contains morphine, a Schedule II controlled substance. As an opioid, Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution exposes users to the risks of addiction, abuse, and misuse <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Drug Abuse and Dependence ( 9 )]</span>. Although the risk of addiction in any individual is unknown, it can occur in patients appropriately prescribed morphine sulfate. Addiction can occur at recommended dosages and if the drug is misused or abused. The risk of opioid-related overdose or overdose-related death is increased with higher opioid doses, and this risk persists over the course of therapy. In postmarketing studies, addiction, abuse, misuse, and fatal and non-fatal opioid overdose were observed in patients with long-term opioid use <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Adverse Reactions ( 6 )]</span> . Assess each patient’s risk for opioid addiction, abuse, or misuse prior to prescribing Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution, and reassess all patients receiving Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution for the development of these behaviors and conditions. Risks are increased in patients with a personal or family history of substance abuse (including drug or alcohol abuse or addiction) or mental illness (e.g., major depression). The potential for these risks should not, however, prevent the proper management of pain in any given patient. Patients at increased risk may be prescribed opioids such as Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution but use in such patients necessitates intensive counseling about the risks and proper use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution along with frequent reevaluation for signs of addiction, abuse, and misuse. Consider recommending or prescribing an opioid overdose reversal agent <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Dosage and Administration ( 2.2 ) and Warnings and Precautions ( 5.3 )]</span>. Opioids are sought for nonmedical use and are subject to diversion from legitimate prescribed use. Consider these risks when prescribing or dispensing Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution. Strategies to reduce these risks include prescribing the drug in the smallest appropriate quantity and advising the patient on careful storage of the drug during the course of treatment and on the proper disposal of unused drug. Contact local state professional licensing board or state-controlled substances authority for information on how to prevent and detect abuse or diversion of this product.

5.3 Life-Threatening Respiratory Depression Serious, life-threatening, or fatal respiratory depression has been reported with the use of opioids, even when used as recommended. Respiratory depression, if not immediately recognized and treated, may lead to respiratory arrest and death. Management of respiratory depression may include close observation, supportive measures, and use of opioid overdose reversal agents, depending on the patient’s clinical status <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Overdosage ( 10 )]</span> . Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) retention from opioid-induced respiratory depression can exacerbate the sedating effects of opioids. While serious, life-threatening, or fatal respiratory depression can occur at any time during the use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution, the risk is greatest during the initiation of therapy or following a dosage increase of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution. To reduce the risk of respiratory depression, proper dosing and titration of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution are essential <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Dosage and Administration ( 2 )]</span>. Overestimating the Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution dosage when converting patients from another opioid product can result in a fatal overdose with the first dose.

Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution

20 mg/mL is for use only in opioid-tolerant adult patients . Administration of this formulation may cause fatal respiratory depression when administered to patients who are not tolerant to the respiratory depressant effects of opioids. Accidental ingestion of even one dose of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution, especially by children, can result in respiratory depression and death due to an overdose of morphine. Educate patients and caregivers on how to recognize respiratory depression and emphasize the importance of calling 911 or getting emergency medical help right away in the event of a known or suspected overdose. Opioids can cause sleep-related breathing disorders including central sleep apnea (CSA) and sleep-related hypoxemia. Opioid use increases the risk of CSA in a dose-dependent fashion. In patients who present with CSA, consider decreasing the opioid dosage using best practices for opioid taper [see Dosage and Administration ( 2.6 )].

Patient

Access to an Opioid Overdose Reversal Agent for the Emergency Treatment of Opioid Overdose : Inform patients and caregivers about opioid overdose reversal agents (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene). Discuss the importance of having access to an opioid overdose reversal agent, especially if the patient has risk factors for overdose (e.g., concomitant use of CNS depressants, a history of opioid use disorder, or prior opioid overdose) or if there are household members (including children) or other close contacts at risk for accidental ingestion or opioid overdose. The presence of risk factors for overdose should not prevent the management of pain in any patient [see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.2 , 5.4 )]. Discuss the options for obtaining an opioid overdose reversal agent (e.g., prescription, over-the-counter, or as part of a community-based program). There are important differences among the opioid overdose reversal agents, such as route of administration, product strength, approved patient age range, and pharmacokinetics. Be familiar with these differences, as outlined in the approved labeling for those products, prior to recommending or prescribing such an agent. Educate patients and caregivers on how to recognize respiratory depression, and how to use an opioid overdose reversal agent for the emergency treatment of opioid overdose. Emphasize the importance of calling 911 or getting emergency medical help, even if an opioid overdose reversal agent is administered [see Dosage and Administration ( 2.3 ), Warnings and Precautions ( 5.2 , 5.4 ), Overdosage ( 10 )].

5.4 Risks from Concomitant Use with Benzodiazepines or Other CNS Depressants Profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and death may result from the concomitant use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution with benzodiazepines and/or other CNS depressants, including alcohol (e.g., non-benzodiazepine sedatives/hypnotics, anxiolytics, tranquilizers, muscle relaxants, general anesthetics, antipsychotics, gabapentinoids [gabapentin or pregabalin], and other opioids). Because of these risks, reserve concomitant prescribing of these drugs for use in patients for whom alternative treatment options are inadequate. Observational studies have demonstrated that concomitant use of opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines increases the risk of drug-related mortality compared to use of opioid analgesics alone. Because of similar pharmacological properties, it is reasonable to expect similar risk with the concomitant use of other CNS depressant drugs with opioid analgesics <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Drug Interactions ( 7 )]</span> . If the decision is made to prescribe a benzodiazepine or other CNS depressant concomitantly with an opioid analgesic, prescribe the lowest effective dosages and minimum durations of concomitant use. In patients already receiving an opioid analgesic, prescribe a lower initial dose of the benzodiazepine or other CNS depressant than indicated in the absence of an opioid, and titrate based on clinical response. If an opioid analgesic is initiated in a patient already taking a benzodiazepine or other CNS depressant, prescribe a lower initial dose of the opioid analgesic, and titrate based on clinical response. Inform patients and caregivers of this potential interaction and educate them on the signs and symptoms of respiratory depression (including sedation). If concomitant use is warranted, consider recommending or prescribing an opioid overdose reversal agent <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Dosage and Administration ( 2.3 ), Warnings and Precautions ( 5.3 ), Overdosage ( 10 )]</span>. Advise both patients and caregivers about the risks of respiratory depression and sedation when Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution is used with benzodiazepines or other CNS depressants (including alcohol and illicit drugs). Advise patients not to drive or operate heavy machinery until the effects of concomitant use of the benzodiazepine or other CNS depressant have been determined. Screen patients for risk of substance use disorders, including opioid abuse and misuse, and warn them of the risk for overdose and death associated with the use of additional CNS depressants including alcohol and illicit drugs <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Drug Interactions ( 7 )]</span> .

5.5 Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome Use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution for an extended period of time during pregnancy can result in withdrawal in the neonate. Neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome, unlike opioid withdrawal syndrome in adults, may be life-threatening if not recognized and treated, and requires management according to protocols developed by neonatology experts. Observe newborns for signs of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome and manage accordingly. Advise pregnant women using opioids for an extended period of time of the risk of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome and ensure that appropriate treatment will be available <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Use in Specific Populations ( 8.1 )]</span>.

5.6 Opioid Analgesic Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) To ensure that the benefits of opioid analgesics outweigh the risks of addiction, abuse, and misuse, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has required a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) for these products. Under the requirements of the REMS, drug companies with approved opioid analgesic products must make REMS-compliant education programs available to healthcare providers. Healthcare providers are strongly encouraged to do all of the following:

• Complete a REMS-compliant education program offered by an accredited provider of continuing education (CE) or another education program that includes all the elements of the FDA Education Blueprint for Health Care Providers Involved in the Management or Support of Patients with Pain.
• Discuss the safe use, serious risks, and proper storage and disposal of opioid analgesics with patients and/or their caregivers every time these medicines are prescribed.

The Patient Counseling

Guide (PCG) can be obtained at this link: www.fda.gov/OpioidAnalgesicREMSPCG .

• Emphasize to patients and their caregivers the importance of reading the Medication Guide that they will receive from their pharmacist every time an opioid analgesic is dispensed to them.
• Consider using other tools to improve patient, household, and community safety, such as patient-prescriber agreements that reinforce patient-prescriber responsibilities. To obtain further information on the opioid analgesic REMS and for a list of accredited REMS CME/CE, call 1-800-503-0784, or log on to www.opioidanalgesicrems.com . The FDA Blueprint can be found at www.fda.gov/OpioidAnalgesicREMSBlueprint.

5.7 Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia and Allodynia Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia (OIH) occurs when an opioid analgesic paradoxically causes an increase in pain, or an increase in sensitivity to pain. This condition differs from tolerance, which is the need for increasing doses of opioids to maintain a defined effect <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Dependence ( 9.3 )]</span> . Symptoms of OIH include (but may not be limited to) increased levels of pain upon opioid dosage increase, decreased levels of pain upon opioid dosage decrease, or pain from ordinarily non-painful stimuli (allodynia). These symptoms may suggest OIH only if there is no evidence of underlying disease progression, opioid tolerance, opioid withdrawal, or addictive behavior. Cases of OIH have been reported, both with short-term and longer-term use of opioid analgesics. Though the mechanism of OIH is not fully understood, multiple biochemical pathways have been implicated. Medical literature suggests a strong biologic plausibility between opioid analgesics and OIH and allodynia. If a patient is suspected to be experiencing OIH, carefully consider appropriately decreasing the dose of the current opioid analgesic or opioid rotation (safely switching the patient to a different opioid moiety) <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Dosage and Administration ( 2.6 ), Warnings and Precautions ( 5.15 )]</span>.

5.8 Life-Threatening Respiratory Depression in Patients with Chronic Pulmonary Disease or in Elderly, Cachectic, or Debilitated Patients The use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution in patients with acute or severe bronchial asthma in an unmonitored setting or in the absence of resuscitative equipment is contraindicated. Patients with Chronic Pulmonary Disease Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution-treated patients with significant chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or cor pulmonale, and those with a substantially decreased respiratory reserve, hypoxia, hypercapnia, or pre-existing respiratory depression are at increased risk of decreased respiratory drive including apnea, even at recommended dosages of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.3 )]</span>. Elderly, Cachectic, or Debilitated Patients Life-threatening respiratory depression is more likely to occur in elderly, cachectic, or debilitated patients because they may have altered pharmacokinetics or altered clearance compared to younger, healthier patients <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.3 )]</span>. Regularly evaluate patients, particularly when initiating and titrating Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution and when Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution is given concomitantly with other drugs that depress respiration <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Warnings and Precautions ( 5.3 , 5.4 ), Drug Interactions ( 7 )]</span>. Alternatively, consider the use of non-opioid analgesics in these patients.

5.9 Interaction with Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) may potentiate the effects of morphine, including respiratory depression, coma, and confusion.

Morphine Sulfate Oral

Solution should not be used in patients taking MAOIs or within 14 days of stopping such treatment.

5.10 Adrenal Insufficiency Cases of adrenal insufficiency have been reported with opioid use, more often following greater than one month of use. Presentation of adrenal insufficiency may include non-specific symptoms and signs including nausea, vomiting, anorexia, fatigue, weakness, dizziness, and low blood pressure. If adrenal insufficiency is suspected, confirm the diagnosis with diagnostic testing as soon as possible. If adrenal insufficiency is diagnosed, treat with physiologic replacement doses of corticosteroids. Wean the patient off of the opioid to allow adrenal function to recover and continue corticosteroid treatment until adrenal function recovers. Other opioids may be tried as some cases reported use of a different opioid without recurrence of adrenal insufficiency. The information available does not identify any particular opioids as being more likely to be associated with adrenal insufficiency.

5.11 Severe Hypotension Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution may cause severe hypotension including orthostatic hypotension and syncope in ambulatory patients. There is increased risk in patients whose ability to maintain blood pressure has already been compromised by a reduced blood volume or concurrent administration of certain CNS depressant drugs (e.g., phenothiazines or general anesthetics) <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Drug Interactions ( 7 )]</span>. Regularly evaluate these patients for signs of hypotension after initiating or titrating the dosage of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution. In patients with circulatory shock, Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution may cause vasodilation that can further reduce cardiac output and blood pressure. Avoid the use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution in patients with circulatory shock.

5.12 Risks of Use in Patients with Increased Intracranial Pressure, Brain Tumors, Head Injury, or Impaired Consciousness In patients who may be susceptible to the intracranial effects of CO 2 retention (e.g., those with evidence of increased intracranial pressure or brain tumors), Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution may reduce respiratory drive, and the resultant CO 2 retention can further increase intracranial pressure. Monitor such patients for signs of sedation and respiratory depression, particularly when initiating therapy with Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution. Opioids may also obscure the clinical course in a patient with a head injury. Avoid the use of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution in patients with impaired consciousness or coma.

5.13 Risks of Gastrointestinal Complications Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution is contraindicated in patients with known or suspected gastrointestinal obstruction, including paralytic ileus. The morphine in Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution may cause spasm of the sphincter of Oddi. Opioids may cause increases in serum amylase. Regularly evaluate patients with biliary tract disease, including acute pancreatitis, for worsening symptoms. Cases of opioid-induced esophageal dysfunction (OIED) have been reported in patients taking opioids. The risk of OIED may increase as the dose and/or duration of opioids increases. Regularly evaluate patients for signs and symptoms of OIED (e.g., dysphagia, regurgitation, non-cardiac chest pain) and, if necessary, adjust opioid therapy as clinically appropriate <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Clinical Pharmacology ( 12.2 )]</span>.

5.14 Increased Risk of Seizures in Patients with Seizure Disorders The morphine in Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution may increase the frequency of seizures in patients with seizure disorders and may increase the risk of seizures occurring in other clinical settings associated with seizures. Regularly evaluate patients with a history of seizure disorders for worsened seizure control during Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution therapy.

5.15 Withdrawal Do not rapidly reduce or abruptly discontinue Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution in a patient physically dependent on opioids. When discontinuing Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution in a physically dependent patient, gradually taper the dosage. Rapid tapering of morphine in a patient physically dependent on opioids may lead to a withdrawal syndrome and return of pain <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Dosage and Administration ( 2.6 ) and Drug Abuse and Dependence ( 9.3 )]</span> . Additionally, avoid the use of mixed agonist/antagonist (e.g., pentazocine, nalbuphine, and butorphanol) or partial agonist (e.g., buprenorphine) analgesics in patients who are receiving a full opioid agonist analgesic, including Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution. In these patients, mixed agonist/antagonist and partial agonist analgesics may reduce the analgesic effect and/or precipitate withdrawal symptoms <span class="opacity-50 text-xs">[see Drug Interactions ( 7 )]</span>.

5.16 Risks of Driving and Operating Machinery Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution may impair the mental or physical abilities needed to perform potentially hazardous activities such as driving a car or operating machinery. Warn patients not to drive or operate dangerous machinery unless they are tolerant to the effects of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution and know how they will react to the medication.